Created By: Riley Quijano
Caffeine is a type of stimulant drug that is
widely taken across the world. It is mainly characterized as a way to
get a quick burst of energy and a sense of alertness, causing many
people to consume it early in the morning, mainly in the form of coffee.
Caffeine is a psychoactive drug, meaning it has an effect on the
nervous system, which causes the brain to function differently. Although
it is classified as legally safe by the FDA for being a not-so-lethal
psychoactive drug, unlike drugs like cocaine, marijuana, hallucinators,
and etc., what effect does caffeine have on organisms other than giving
people a wake up call?
It has been proved that animals' locomotion can be
affected by caffeine.
Some effects of caffeine are not experienced by humans, but humans
cannot avoid all of caffeine's effects on the central nervous system
(Chawla 2011,
1).
The most evident
effects of caffeine include a sense of alertness,
increased energy, and an increased sense of focus. Although moderate
levels of caffeine intake are harmless, high amounts of caffeine intake
can result in jitteriness, anxiousness, not being able to sleep, and
fast heart palpitations (Chawla 2011,
2).
The composition of caffeine is similar to that of uric acid (Chawla 2011,
4).
Caffeine is mostly found in drinks and some foods. When people think of
items with caffeine in it, they will of course think of coffee. In
addition to coffee, caffeine is also in tea, energy drinks,
chocolate-based drinks, candy bars, and soda. Coffee contains the most
caffeine out of these products with 71-220 mg/150 mL (Chawla 2011,
3).
Neurons in
people's brain
s are constantly working while people are awake and
while they work, they produce a byproduct called adenosine. If one's
adenosine
levels get too high, which is tracked by the nervous system,
the body starts to become tired and drowsy in response to this (Purdy
2010,
1). There are adenosine receptors all over the body and in muscle and as quoted by Braun, the author of the book
Buzz: The Science and Lore of Alcohol and Caffeine,
"For one thing, the problem with caffeine is that there are adenosine
receptors all over the body, including muscles." (Purdy 2010,
7)
Adenosine is impersonated by caffeine, and therefore
results in caffeine
being accepted by adenosine receptors. The caffeine attaches itself to
the receptors and blocks the receptors, which lets stimulants produced
by the brain, dopamine and glutamate, to give the person a sense of
alertness. Braun describes this behavior as,
"Like taking the chaperones out of a high school dance" and in his book,
"putting a block of wood under one of the brain's primary brake pedals." (Purdy 2010, 3)
In the same article, the author also explains how the brain starts to
become more tolerant towards the effects of caffeine (Purdy 2010,
4).
Purdy also states that the tolerance for caffeine starts to develop
after a week to twelve days of daily caffeine intake (Purdy 2010,
5).
However, one can start to experience symptoms of caffeine withdrawal
after around
12 to 24 hours of caffeine consumption also. The body
becomes so used to consuming caffeine and living with caffeine that it
doesn't seem to know how to function without the presence of caffeine in
the system. Purdy lists the withdrawal symptoms as, "
Headaches
are the nearly universal effect of cutting off caffeine, but depression,
fatigue, lethargy, irritability, nausea, and vomiting can be part of
your cut-off, too, along with more specific issues, like eye muscle
spasms." (Purdy 2011, 6)
Caffeine is absorbed quickly in the stomach of humans, and finally hits
the bloodstream in about 1 to 2 hours. Most bodily tissues absorb
caffeine, and that causes it to
affect most of a person's body (Braun
2013,
1).
Exercise can be
affected by caffeine because when someone exercises,
they break down a sugar taken from food called glycogen, but caffeine
helps slow down the body from draining the glycogen by encouraging the
use of fat as a source of energy. Energy can be saved for longer amounts
of time this way (Braun 2013,
2).
However, contradictory to the previous study mentioned, another study
was performed to see how caffeinated drinks can effect performance.
Subjects didn't know whether their drink had caffeine in it and only 50%
guessed correctly afterwards (Kovacs 1998,
2). The experiment concluded that caffeinated drinks didn't effect cycling performance (Kovacs 1998,
1).
Research on whether caffeine
affected a newborn baby's weight and fetal
growth was set up from 1996 until 1998 (Clausson, et al. 2001,
1). Scientists recruited mothers in Sweden who were pregnant with a single infant (Clausson, et al. 2001,
2).
Scientists found that caffeine intake did not have any association with
birth weight and fetal growth. Exposure to caffeine did not even
affect
the mothers when they took in caffeine during their 32nd to 34th weeks
of pregnancy, which is towards the end of the last trimester of
pregnancy (Clausson, et al. 2001,
3).
In a fairly recent study, it was discovered that caffeine
affected bees
in a positive way. Scientists set up an experiment where they produced
"nectar" with the same amount of sugar, but various levels of caffeine.
The caffeine levels ranged from no caffeine at all to about the same
amount of caffeine as instant coffee. Scientists also tested whether
increasing sugar levels would also contribute to the memory-boosting,
but the results were the same as the regular sugar level nectar fluid
(Reshanov 2013,
1).
Within 24 hours of the experiment, the amount of bees that remembered
the nectar tripled and by 72 hours, doubled (Gorman 2013,
1).
This kind of relationship not only benefits the bees, but also the
flowers. The flowers are competing with other nectar producing organisms
and the caffeine helps them gain more pollinators, which result in more
fertilized eggs (Reshanov 2013,
2).
However, scientists also found out that high amounts of caffeine can
effect the bees negatively. If caffeine levels reach 1mM, the
measurement of concentration in a solution, the bees will become less
interested in the nectar solute (Reshanov 2013,
3).
Endogenous glucose production was found to be not
affected by caffeine.
Endogenous glucose production, abbreviated as EGP, is when the body
produces glucose (Battram et al. 2005,
1). The caffeine did
affect adrenaline levels, but there was still no
affect whatsoever on the EGP levels (Battram et al. 2005,
2).
It was concluded that a human's EGP levels are not
affected by
caffeine, but it was found that dogs' glucose output is
affected by
caffeine (Battram et al. 2005,
3).
Caffeine is a pretty powerful psychoactive drug and it has many
affects
on organisms. It has both positive and negative
affects, which can
mainly stem from the user of caffeine in many cases. I learned that
caffeine doesn't just give people a wake-up call just by consuming it,
but that it actually just helps the brain's own stimulate to wake up on
it's own by block receptors.
(Sentence is difficult to understand) Also, that it can give bees a memory boost,
but can also give them different behaviors towards flowers if the
caffeine levels are too high. All in all, caffeine is one of natures
most complex products, in my opinion.
This report is really good but short of the 1800 word requirement.
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Created By: Riley Quijano
How the brain controls the speech in your
body is very complicated and amazing and some ways to explain
(clarify what you mean by "and some ways to explain") are the
background of the brain and speech relations, which part of the brain
controls speech,
the areas of the brain, and some of the many speech
disorders and aphasias.
(Revise this intro. Provide a hook and split it up in to multiple sentences. This is one big run-on right now)
Researchers have been studying how the brain works and always asked
questions about how it even can control speech. Speech is in all
creatures for mating calls, communication, coordination in work,
etc.
(Try to leave out abbreviations like "etc.")
The list can go on forever (Miyagawa et.al 2013,
1). It is what is needed for all successful life
, as people depend on good speech skills every day (Kerlin et.al 2010,
1)
.
But recently at the University of California San Fransisco, researchers
have found through brain neuron during brain surgery where these type
of skills come from.
(Clarify sentence) Edward Chang
, who is a neurosurgeon at the
University of California San Fransisco Epilepsy Center and a worker at
the University of California
, San Fransisco Center for Integrative
Neuroscience
, said,"
Speaking is so fundamental to who we are as humans – nearly all of us learn to speak, but it’s probably the most complex motor activity we do"(Rannals 2013, 3).
Now that these studies are able to take place, new information is able
to be recorded because before, all information was from the 1940's where
they used electric stimulation to get the face
and the body to twitch. But now scientists are to have a more advanced brain mapping for
future events (Bardi 2013,
4).
As time goes along, that same question has come along of where in the
brain does speech come from. Ever since the late 1600's have scientists
been pondering on the thought of where does the speech
that is said
every day (might wanna take this out) come from (Murphy 2013,
2).
The speech in humans is in the left side of the brain. Speech in the
human body comes from the sensorimotor cortex. Edward Chang performed
three tests on three different patients at the University of California
,
San Fransisco, the sensorimotor cortex controls the lip, tongue, jaw,
and larynx all at once (Bardi et,al 2013,
1). (
Need a connection between the two clauses in this sentence)
The scientists there said and explained this type of activity as a
"split second symphony" because of how in
on (?) short second, the
sensorimotor cortex controls the lips, tongue, jaw, and the pharynx
(Bardi et.al 2013,
2).
“These properties may
reflect cortical strategies to greatly simplify the complex coordination
of articulators in fluent speech,” said Kristofer Bouchard.
Another explanation that went along with the explanation of how the
sensorimotor cortex is like a split second symphony is how the orchestra
has to
go ahead and (delete this) coordinate their plucks, bows, or blows to make a
group sound the sounds amazing. Such
is how that when a person speaks,
it causes the lips, tongue, jaw, and pharynx to coordinate together for a
clear articulated sound that allows for communication between people
(Bardi et.al 2013,
3).
When it comes that these scientists have to go ahead and test these
patients during brain surgery. (Does not make sense and get rid have "have to go ahead") They have patients say stuff
phrases as "I
owe you a yo-yo" over many repeated trials(Cai et.al 2011,
1)
When speech comes back, and the brain has to read the words coming
through and the process the response, it is the perturbed sensory
feedback (Sentence does not make sense) (Feng et.al 2010,
2).
The brain has several areas that are th
ere to help the decipher language
and get it back out to respond
to the conversations that people have every
day.
The first main area is called the Broca area, which is named after
Paul Broca. Paul Broca is a French Neurologist who had a patient with
major speech problems.
His patient could only say the word "tan". His
patient was a normal person and was able to tell what others were always
saying but would not be able to respond. After Paul Broca's patient had
passed away, he performed an autopsy on him to
go ahead and (delete) see why his
speech was so messed up. What he found was that the patient's brain,
in
front of the frontal lobe (does not fit with rest of sentence), his motor cortex was
severely damaged which
was why he
was not able to speak well. The Broca area is also the area
where the deciphering of words is. For example someone with Broca
Aphasia (Aphasia is the inability of speech),
is told the boy
was slapped by the girl, they might think you said that the boy slapped
the girl (Boeree 2004,
1)
The next area of the brain is the Wernicke's
named area after the German
neurologist Carl Wernicke, who had the patient that
was about the complete
opposite of Paul Broca's patient, because Carl Wernicke's patient
was
able speak as fine as any other person but when it came to someone
speaking to him, he wasn't able to
go ahead and (delete) speak to other people.
(Run-on sentence)
When Carl Wernicke's patient died, Wernicke performed an autopsy on him
and discover
ed that an upper part of the man's temporal lobe,
which is located barely
behind the auditory cortex, was damaged. So Carl Wernicke said that this
part of the brain was
brain comprehension.(Speech comprehension?) If someone was to have
Wernicke aphasia, they would would do two things. One thing that someone
with Wernicke Aphasia would do is if they were asked a question, they
would probably answer with something irrational and also something that
has poor grammer. Another thing that someone would do if they had
Wernicke Aphasia is they would
go ahead and (delete) mix up words that sound
alike and or look alike. It is related to as a screwed up "Mental
Dictionary"
(Clarify sentence) (Boeree 2004,
2)
Even though that Broca Aphasia and Wernicke Aphasia sound like they are
two separate things, they are actually somewhat connected. They are
connected through a set of nerves called the arcuate fascilius. If the
arcuate fascilias is damaged,
as some people have (not necessary), it will result in a
aphasia called Conduction Aphasia. These people are said to have it
easier than people that have Broca Aphasia and Wenicke Aphasia. What
happens is that those people with Conduction Aphasia are able to
clearly understand what people are saying. They can also
go ahead and(delete)
speak coherently but with some amount of difficulty. But when it comes
to the process of having to
go ahead(delete) repeat what someone had just said,
they are unable to process the information they had just heard.
The last area of the brain is the angular gyrus, which is about halfway
between the Wernicke area and the visual cortex. The angular gyrus was
discovered during an autopsy of a young patient
who died.(Technically redundant because "autopsy" means that the person is dead) The young
patient had reading problems, but when the autopsy occurred, they found
that his angular gyrus had several problems and abnormalities. The
scientists who had
gone ahead and (delete) conducted the autopsy discovered that
the angular gyrus is where several speech problems are from
, such
as Alexia
,
which is the inability to read
, Dyslexia which
means difficulties with
reading
, and finally the inability to write which is agraphia (Boeree
2004,
3).
There
are many aphasias and speech disorders. Another aphasia is the
Global Aphasia. It happens when both the Broca area and the Wernicke
area are both damaged. What happens to those that have been diagnosed
with global aphasia is that they are affected with speech problems in
both language and speech. They can only say a few words and phrases at
most and understand a few phrases and words.
They also will not be able
to carry out commands that people have given to them or even name
objects. Also they cannot
go ahead and (delete) repeat read or write.
(Confusing sentence) And finally
repeat out words or phrases people have said to them.(Does not make sense) Hence the reason,
Global Aphasia, because it affects both of the major speech areas of
the brains, and its symptoms are most of the other aphasias
(Does not make sense) (Anonymous
2013,
1)
Another aphasia is Logopenic Progressive Aphasia. What happens is that
when the angular gyrus in the temporal lobe and inferior parietal lobe
can lead to Logogpenic Progressive Aphasia.
(Does not make sense) The
symptom of Logopenic
Progressive Aphasia
is slowed speech while normal articulation is
taking place. Impaired comprehension of sentence syntax as well as the
impaired naming of things.
(Fragment / Does not make sense) Logopenic Progressive Aphasia is hypothesized
to be somehow connected to Alzheimer's (Anonymous 2013,
2)
Primary Progressive Aphasia is another aphasia. What happens in the
brain is that all parts of the brain start to
go ahead and (delete) go away that
control speech and language. Which is the left (dominant) part of the
brain in the frontal temporal and parietal regions.
(Does not make sense) The thing that is
different about Primary Progressive Aphasia is that it gradually gets
worse and worse and it starts with simple speech problems such as normal
speech an
d language disorders. It starts just as a normal degeneration
would be with speech and language issues.
(Does not make sense) What ends up happening is
slowly more aphasias and speech disorders. The speech disorders it
develops are progressive non-fluent aphasia, semantic dementia, and
Logopenic Progressive Aphasia. It comes from a group of underlying
diseases. But mostly Alzheimer's or Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration
(Anonymous 2013,
3)
Another Aphasia is Transcortical Motor Aphasia
, which is when the communication
between the Broca Area and the pre-motor or Supplementary motor area is
cut off. Since the Wernicke's Area and the Arcuate Facicillius are ok,
people with Transcortical Motor Aphasia have good repetition skills, but
cuts off the link between the Broca's area and the basal ganglia and or
thalamus.
In the basal ganglia and thalamus have some sort of pre-motor
function along with it. Damage could end up causing symptoms that will
affect the link in between the Broca Area and limbic system which is
involved in memory, speech, and language. Since that Transcortical Motor
Aphasia does not affect aphasia, repetition does not affect grammar and
articulation
is normal. Someone with Transcortical Motor Aphasia will
have a big problem organizing a response in the event of a question. If
someone with Transcortical Motor phasia was asked something like why
are you in the hospital, they would not be able to answer it. They will
be able to answer what their home town is or yes or no questions. Those
with Transcortical Motor Aphasia can not answer questions well. But will
have good to fair articulation. And good to excellent audio
comprehension (McCaffery 2013,
1).
(Revise fragments throughout this whole paragraph, and define scientific terms. Currently difficult to understand)
The final Aphasia I will present is Auditory Aphasia. It results from
damage to the Temporal Lobe which includes part or all six different
corticl areas on the internal part of the cortex. Studies le
d
researchers to believe that to general terms that as the posterior
temporal gyrus or Heschi gyrus.
(Does not make sense) The second auditory area is the
posterior
superior portion of the temporal lobe
, which includes most of the middle
temporal lobe. (Anonymous 2013,
1)
The brain is a very complex part of the body as is
, but when it comes to
speech, the brain contolling the speech of the human body and its
disorders, it does not get more complicated as the aphasias and
speech disorders go on.
(Conclusion should be longer.)
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Created By: Riley Quijano
Imagine a world where all problems within your
DNA could be solved with simple operations. Where diseases would be near nonexistent, and rare and useful materials could be salvage with ease.
(Sentence should be clarified) By using protein modifications and genetic engineering
, scientists plan to accomplish these type of things. Scientists plan to use
these methods
to modify crops,
create goat milk,
repair proteins in DNA, and
find ways to extract materials with more ease. Scientists are also trying to use these methods to create a more sustainable way of living.
(should make a topic sentence to start off paragraph) Protein engineering is the act of changing the protein to something that is desired, rather than not (Kumar 2012
1). By doing this scientists are able to create new types of proteins. Researchers are able to use this branch of science to make materials with new strengths and abilities (anonymous a 2013
1). Through this
, scientists are able to create materials that do not show up in the outside environment (anonymous a 2013
2). Genetic engineering is not that much different from protein engineering. It is the art of modifying genes in living organisms. They do this by adding genes from other animals modified to the scientists specifications (anonymous b 2003
1).
Because of the use of genetic modification
, the new DNA becomes
a part of the animal and
will be passed down to its offspring(Moulton 2004
1). There are over two hundred modifications created to date that have real uses in the cells of animals and plants (MacCoss?? et.al. June 2002
1).
There are a few steps scientists must follow in order to successfully complete the process of protein engineering. The first is identification. Researchers must identify the protein that must be changed. The next is characterization. Researchers must isolate and characterize the protein biochemically. The function of the protein and the relationship between the structure and the function of the protein is discovered. Researchers must then decide what type of protein modification should be attempted. Last
, scientists and researchers must incorporate the changes into the desired protein (Kumar 2012
3). There are a number of techniques researchers can do to recover the DNA. Some of them are
DNA sequencing, site-directed mutagenesis and DNA shuffling (Phillips 26 March 2007 1).
(Explain each of these processes)
Much like in protein engineering, implementers must follow steps in order to do it correctly.
(Clarify who these implementers are) The implementer must first take the desired chromosome from the DNA and add "sticky ends" onto the new chromosome and the receiving DNA. The DNA piece is then inserted into a vector to transfer the receiving chromosome.
(This process needs to be explained more clearly Currently difficult to follow) The vector usually used is a plasmid, which
is a circular
molecule of DNA found in the cytoplasm of bacteria that
bonds with the desired DNA fragment. Once that is completed
, the plasmids must reproduce when the host cell does
, which will create what is called a gene library. To find the desired DNA
, scientists screen the mixture and use gel electrophoresis. This uses a positively charged grid to attract the negative charged DNA fragments. Radioactive or fluorescent probes are then added to produce visible bands. Once the steps have been completed the DNA is ready for commercial use (Moulton 2004
1).
One of the many ways
to use genetic engineering is
to take the spider silk gene and transfer it
into goat
's DNA (?). They take the gene and insert it into a goat egg. When the baby goat is born and it lactates
, there is spider silk in addition
to the normal milk. To extract the spider silk
, they take every spider fibre and spool it on a reel. These people have discovered that
the spider's silk can be used to repair ligaments, can become a type of elastic, and can be inserted into the body without worry of inflammation (Rutherford 14 January 2012
1). Other uses for spider silk include bullet proof clothing, ligament repair,
(ligament repair is listed twice) bandages, Kevlar replacement, ropes, nets, parachutes, rust free panels on boats and planes, bio
-friendly water bottles, and new lightweight clothing. These are only a few of the many possibilities of spider silk (anonymous c 2013
1).
One of the many materials that protein modifications have been able to create are immunotoxins. Immunotoxins are described as "the conjugates of cell binding antibody or antigens, covalently bound to a plant or a bacterial toxin"-(anonymous d 2009
3). This helps patients treated with it because the antibody part of the immunotoxin finds cells that need to be killed and the toxin part of it actually does the killing part
. ("Part" is repeated many times in this sentence) These immunotoxins are also used for research on tumor cells and how immunotoxins effect them (anonymous d 2009 3).
With the threat of peak oil around the corner, scientists have been searching for
an alternative to oil and other petroleum resources. They believe that through genetic engineering they can create a ecofriendly biofuel that can be more sustainable for the planet. They believe this will be a much better alternative to much more costly oil products. Scientists have been searching into algae and seaweed related bio fuels for decades. Microalgae specifically have been at the front part of scientist
s' minds as a possible resource for bio fuel. One of the reasons scientists are so focused on the sea related bio fuel options is the ability to not have to take portions of the harvest of corn and soy beans for bio fuel use. Sea related plants can also be used year round where as crops can usually only be harvested annually (Radakovits 10 April
2). From the plants
, they specifically want to use the carbohydrates.
Using carbohydrates leaves several types of bio fuels to be used including ethanol, butanol, and methane (Radakovits 10 April
2). Others plan to do this by changing the plant's cell wall to make a more rapid breakdown into the bio fuel ethanol.
(Clarify the relationship between the breakdown of the cell wall and the production of ethanol. A little hard to understand) Nevertheless many people still believe, no mater how it is done, that i
t is a national priority even though scientists are still
very far from tapping into the true potential of using genetic engineering to increase the use of bio fuels (Rao May 2008
2).
With the global population rising faster than ever before, scientists have been getting worried about how much longer the earth will remain sustainable for all of the people's needs. Through the process of protein engineering
, they believe they can solve some of the food related problems. Scientists believe they can modify plants so that they can grow outside of where they normally can (Rao May 2008
3). Scientists observed that when crops go through a large drought,or experience extra high temperatures, there is a severe drop in crop harvesting
(Rao May 2008 4, Yang et.al. 22 March 2010 1).Scientists believed this could be caused by impaired photosynthetic efficiency due to a lack of catalytically competent Rubisco at high temperatures.
(Define Rubisco) It is know
n that Rubisco is regulated by Rubisco activase, which is inhibited at temperature less than 45°C. After testing a hypothesis that increasing the thermal stability of
Rubisco activase can lead to increased photosynthetic activity at elevated temperatures, it was discovered that instead of targeting
Rubisco, it would be better to do protein engineering on
Rubisco activase to keep plants surviv
ing at higher temperatures (Rao May 2008
4).
Recently, there have been discoveries on possible cancer cures by using genetic engineering. Scientists took blood samples from 17 patients. They then took a special type of cell, called a T-cell. They genetically modified them to kill cancer cells. The scientists and doctors then injected them back into each patient with the hope that they would multiply and kill the cancer cells (Nilsson 31 August 2006
1). The doctors had then discovered that after one month
, the tumors throughout Mr.
Origer's body had shrunk by 50%.
(Who is Mr. Origer) Then after 18 months
, they had declared him to be cancer free. Only him and another, however
, lived,
and the other 15 patients had died from the cancer (Nilsson 31 August 2006
2). Scientists warn that this is not a fool
proof cancer treatment. They fear that because
the killer T-Cells could attack normal body tissue with the same receptors as the cancer cells,
they could slowly destroy someone
's body (
Nilsson 31 August 2006 3). In addition to this treatment, others are thinking of a program where pieces of DNA go into your cells and
, based on 5 criteria
, decide if it is a cancer cell. If it is a cancer cell
, then that DNA will destroy the cancerous cell. If, however, there is no cancer
, then the DNA will just mover on to another cell (Rutherford 14 January 2012
2).
Another way genetic engineering can help people with getting around Earth's hurdles is the genetically modified banana.
(Revise this sentence) In Uganda
, bananas are a very important crop. Scientists wanted to take the gene of resistance to certain diseases and insert it into the DNA of the edible bananas. The disease that is the main source of losing banana crops is called the
black leaf streak disease. It is estimated that the people of Uganda lose 50% of their crops every year due to this disease. Scientsists were able to combine the genes to create a
black leaf streak disease immune banana
, which is now be
ing distributed in Uganda (Mestel 12 July 2012
1). Scientists theorize that the reason that plants, such as the wild banana, are immune to these diseases is that they are in the wild, constan
tly being attacked by bugs, fungus, and others (Mestel 12 July 2012
2).
Clearly, through much examination
I have shown you how genetic and protein engineering are able to assist people and help make the Earth a more sustainable environment. Genetic engineering can be used to make bio fuels out of sea plants, can be used to make disease immune bananas, create new door for the cure to cancer, and create new and easier ways to get spider silk. Protein engineering can be used to create immunotoxins to help someone's body fight disease and create more places to farm.
Through our lives it has only gotten tougher.
(Consider making first sentence of this paragraph a little stronger) The world is changing around us and our resources continue to dwindle more and more. How would you like to solve these problems? You can. Genetic and protein engineering can and are improving our lives and our sustainability. All you have to do is think of what needs to be done.
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